Categories, Description and Complications of FGM
Categories
The World Health Organization (WHO, 1997) defined female genital
mutilation (FGM) as all procedures involving partial or total
removal of the external female genitalia or other injury to the
female genital organs whether for cultural or other non-therapeutic
reasons. Note that the male equivalent, of even the least severe
form of female genital cutting, would be complete amputation of the
entire head of the penis. The World Health Organization has
classified FGM into four types:
Type I: Excision of the prepuce (less common), with or
without excision of part or all of the clitoris (more common).
Type II: Excision of the clitoris with partial or total excision of the labia minora (clitoridectomy).
Type III: Excision of part or all of external genitalia and stitching/narrowing of the vaginal opening (infibulation).
Type IV: Unclassified: includes pricking, piercing or incising of clitoris and/or labia; stretching of clitoris and/or labia, and cauterization by burning of clitoris and surrounding tissue.
Description
Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) has been practiced for several
thousand years in almost 30 African and Middle Eastern nations and,
to a lesser extent, in parts of Asia.
FGM varies in degree, ranging from cuts around the clitoris (rare),
to (more commonly) the entire removal of the clitoris, the removal
of the clitoris and labia minora, or the removal of the clitoris and
entire labias, with the resulting wound stitched shut. In this last
form, infibulation, the opening left is generally no larger than a
match head, leaving an insufficient opening for the passage of urine
and menses. FGM is often performed in unsterile surroundings with
the girl forcibly restrained and cut with rudimentary instruments
(razor blade, knife, glass, etc); it is sometimes performed in a
medicalized setting.
The age at which a girl is subjected to FGM ranges from seven days
old to young adulthood. It is most commonly performed between 2 and
15 years of age. Note that clitoridectomy was practiced as treatment
for psychological disorders, mental illness and hysteria in the
United States and Europe as late as the 1950's. It has increasingly
become prevalent in western countries, especially, for example, in
the U.K., where it takes the form of extreme rituals performed on
members of populations not previously subjected to it, and as
traditional rites imposed by immigrants on immigrant females from
practicing cultures.
Immediate Complications
Agonizing pain due to lack of anesthesia;
Hemorrhage: Amputation of the clitoris involves cutting
across the clitoral artery, which has a strong flow and high
pressure. Cutting across the internal pudendal artery can cause
serious bleeding. Hemorrhage may also occur after the first week as
a result of sloughing of the clot over the artery, usually because
of infection. If bleeding is very severe and uncontrolled, it can
result in death;
Shock because of the sudden blood loss and/or the unexpected
and agonizing pain;
Tetanus can occur due to the use of not sterilized equipment
and lack of tetanus toxoïd injection;
Trauma to the adjacent structures (urethra, bladder, anal
sphincter, vaginal walls and Bartholin's gland);
Acute urinary retention occurs nearly always because of 1)
the pain and burning sensation of urine on the raw wound; 2) damage
to the urethra and its surrounding tissue; 3) labial adhesion or
nearly complete closure of the vaginal orifice, as in infibulation;
Wound infection and urinary infection due to urine
retention, the use of non-sterilized equipment and the application
of local dressings of animal feces and ashes. The infecting
organisms may ascend through the short urethra into the bladder, and
the kidneys;
Fever and septicemia;
Group circumcisions using unclean cutting instruments are common,
and can spread HIV infection;
Fractures of the clavicle, femur, or humerus due to strong
pressure applied to the struggling girl;
Eventually death can occur due to hemorrhagic or septic
shock, tetanus and lack of availability of medical services or delay
in seeking help.
Delay in wound healing
due to infection, malnutrition and
anemia;
Anemia due to profuse bleeding;
Pelvic infection: infection of uterus and vagina ascending
from the genital wound and necrotising fasciitis;
Irregular bleeding and vaginal discharge;
Dysmenorrhoa due to pelvic infection, or due to the
obstruction of the vaginal orifice (as in infibulation);
Vulvar dermoid cysts and abscesses are a frequent
complication;
Formation of a keloid scar because of slow and incomplete
healing of the wound, and infection after the operation leading to
production of excessive connective tissue in the scar;
Dyspareunia due to the tight vaginal opening, to pelvic
infection or to vaginismus;
In case of infibulation, it may be necessary to cut the
bridge of skin created by the labia majora before coitus. In one
study surgery was needed in 23 percent before penetration could
occur.
Late Complications
Haematocolpos is estimated at 2 - 3.5 percent in Sudan and
Somalia (Dirie MA, Lindmark G, 1992), due to closure of the vaginal
opening by the scar tissue. The menstrual blood accumulates over
many months in the vagina and uterus. It appears as a bluish,
bulging membrane on vaginal examination;
Infertility because of chronic pelvic infection blocking both
Fallopian tubes -undiagnosed and untreated until it is too late.
Recurrent infections can also cause miscarriages;
Recurrent or chronic urinary tract infections due to stasis
of urine in the bladder and behind scar tissue;
Difficulty in urinating because of damaged urethral opening
or scarring over the urethral opening, or inability to completely
evacuate the bladder when urinating;
Calculus/stone formation in bladder and in vagina because of
stasis of urine and urinary infection;
Urinary incontinence as a complication of an over-distended
bladder and recurrent urinary infections. Vesico-vaginal fistula
result in a distressing condition of urinary incontinence, for which
women are often ostracized from their community;
Anal incontinence and anal fissure due to rectal
intercourse when vaginal intercourse is not possible;
Transmission of HIV because of bleeding during unprotected
intercourse and because of anal intercourse.
Obstetrical Complications
Prolongation of the second stage of labor because of scar or soft tissue dystocia;
Perineal lacerations because of loss of natural compliance of the tissues;
Haemorrhage, leading to shock and death because of tearing of the scar tissue;
Vesico-vaginal or recto-vaginal fistula: obstructed labor can cause necrosis of the vaginal wall, due to constant pressure of baby's head on posterior wall of the urinary bladder and anterior wall of the rectum;
Difficulty in performing a good pelvic examination in infibulated women, resulting in the inability to effectively monitor the progress of labor;
Repetition of deinfibulation and reinfibulation: leaves extensive scarring which is often unstable;
Unnecessary caesarean sections where doctors are not familiar with FGM. Resort to caesarean section for fear of handling the infibulation scar adds the risks of general anaesthesia and major surgery.
Prolonged, obstructed labor and lack of oxygen during the second phase of labor can result in stillbirths or children with cerebral palsy;
Increased risk of HIV transmission in infibulated women: Excessive blood loss at delivery in infibulated women might expose the child (and staff) to HIV infections.
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